Describe the pathogenesis of cancer: breast cancer, sarcoma, carcinoma, cancers of the head and neck. Answer: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) – Burkitt lymphoma. Hepatocellular carcinomas are primarily associated with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). Rhabdomyosarcoma develop anywhere in the body, but is most commonly found in the head and neck, urinary …
Explain the way that spontaneous mutations, sporadic mutations may lead to cancer development, and relate that process to assessment of cancer risk. Answer: Spontaneous mutations can occur in cells as a result of DNA replication errors or exposure to environmental factors, such as UV light or chemicals. These mutations can alter the function of critical …
Explain general principles of tumor cell evasion of immune destruction. Answer: Tumor cells evade immune destruction through various mechanisms, including: Immune checkpoint inhibition: They upregulate immune checkpoints, such as PD-1 and CTLA-4, to evade recognition and destruction by T cells. Suppression of dendritic cells: These cells secrete factors that suppress the function of dendritic cells, …
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Describe the role of telomerase in promoting unregulated cell division Answers: Telomerase is an enzyme that adds DNA to the ends of chromosomes, known as telomeres. In normal cells, telomeres shorten as the cell divides, ultimately leading to cell senescence or death. In cancer cells, telomerase is reactivated, allowing the cell to maintain its telomere …
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Explain the normal role of a tumor suppressor gene and the relevance of a loss-of-function mutation in one of these genes. Give an example of a tumor suppressor gene and the mechanism by which the loss of that gene may favor a cell becoming cancerous. Answer: Tumor suppressor genes play a critical role in preventing …
What are notable features of blood and clotting that change across the lifespan? Answer: The lifespan of a fetal RBC is about 120 days, which is much longer than the lifespan of adult RBCs, which is about 120 days. Erythropoietin is released from the kidney in response to low oxygen levels in the bloodstream. After …
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Describe the major disorders associated with excessive clotting and excessive bleeding, including their causes and manifestations Answer: Excessive clotting disorders, such as Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) and Pulmonary Embolism (PE), can cause serious health issues. DVT is a condition in which blood clots form in deep veins, usually in the legs, leading to pain, swelling, …
Identify the hemostatic (stopping bleeding) and pro-coagulant (promoting the coagulation cascade) functions of platelets Answers: Platelets play an important role in the body’s hemostatic system, which helps prevent and stop bleeding. Platelets help form clots by sticking to the walls of blood vessels at sites of injury, releasing chemicals that activate the coagulation cascade, and …
Describe the cause and manifestations of G6PD deficiency Answer: G6PD deficiency is an inherited genetic disorder that affects red blood cells (RBCs) and leads to hemolytic anemia. G6PD deficiency results in a deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), which is responsible for protecting RBCs from oxidative stress. When RBCs are exposed to certain triggers, …
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Describe the causes and presentation of macrocytic anemia Answer: Macrocytic anemia is caused by a shortage of red blood cells and/or a decrease in the size of red blood cells, leading to an increased mean corpuscular volume (MCV). Common causes include vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, liver disease, alcohol abuse, or certain medications. Symptoms may …
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